Varkâna, the name of the satrapy located on the southern and southeastern shores of the Caspian, is thought to mean "wolf-land" (c.f. Avestan vəhrkō, Sanskrit vŗka and New Persian gorg). The Greeks knew it as Hyrkania (Ὑρκανία, while in Latin and consequently Western European languages, it's spelled "Hyrcania"). Today the name survives as Gorgan, the name of the capital of Golestan province. In the Caspian branch of the Iranian languages, the city is called Wergen
Relating these diverse forms is less challenging than it might appear. To begin with, you've probably already noticed how closely-related V and W phonemes are. The letter V in Western European alphabets is descended from Classical Latin U, which was shaped like a V and functions as a W when it appears before other vowels, so the word virvs, "poison," was pronounced "wee-roos," and vniversvm as "oo-nee-wer-soom." However, in Italian and modern ecclesiastical Latin as they evolved in the Middle Ages, V came to be pronounced like English V. Within the Germanic languages, English ward is equivalent to Norse vörðr and Frankish *wardōn which became French garde and English guard.
From Frankish loanwords in the Latin languages we know that W often shifts to GW and G. Thus *wardōn became Vulgar Latin *guardāre, thence Italian guardare, Spanish guardar, Old French garder. Likewise the English warranty is equivalent to French guarantie (whence also English guarantee), war to guerre, and so on. The shift from W to GW is slight, requiring only that the back of the tongue touch the roof of the mouth, and the difference between them is blurry, as in Spanish GU, which is sometimes pronounced like English W.
In the Iranian languages, the same shift is attested with the name of Vištāspa, Zarathuštra's royal patron in the Gathas, called in the Middle Persian Zand-i Wahman Yasn "Wištāsp" and in the New Persian Šāhnāmah "Goštāsp." So, we can easily picture Varkâna becoming a transitional Middle Iranian form
*Warkan(a), which leads to Caspian Wergen and a further transitional Persian form, something like
*Gwargan, before becoming Gorgan in New Persian.
If the V->W shift - at least in the spoken languages - had already occurred or was taking place as early as the fifth century BC, then Herodotus (or his third-party sources) would have been hearing Varkâna in the form *Warkan(a). This is not unreasonable; in the fourth century BC, Old Persian inscriptions were changing in the direction of Middle Persian and it may be that the spoken language was evolving ahead of the written form.
This brings us to Hyrkania, which from an English-speaker's point of view still scarcely resembles *Warkan(a). However, that's down to applying English phonology to the word. Ὑρκανία in Greek has rather different sound values, mainly in the first syllable. First, note that the letter eta (H) is not written. In ancient Greek dialects, initial eta was often dropped. Second, the upsilon (Y) was pronounced much closer to English long U (as in "rue") than to any kind of English Y. Thus, the ancient Greek pronunciation of Hyrkania was probably more like "Oorkania," which, of course, is not too far removed from *Warkan(a).
The change from -a to -ia is seen elsewhere in Greek; the ancient Anatolian country of Lukka was known in Greek as Lykia (Lycia). I don't have sufficient knowledge to explain the elimination of the first A, but it's perhaps relevant that the initial digamma (W) before vowels was dropped altogether in many Greek dialects during the Archaic period, as Mycenaean wa-na-ka, "king" -> Homeric anax.
For comparison:
Iranian Vištāspa = Greek Hystaspes
O.P. Vidarna = Gk. Hydarnes
Sanskrit Vistasta = Gk. Hydaspes
If I'm correct, then in all these cases, the upsilon equates to Indo-Iranian V, not I. In which case, the I is dropped just like the first A in *Warkan(a) -> Hyrkania.
Showing posts with label language. Show all posts
Showing posts with label language. Show all posts
Saturday, June 25, 2016
Tuesday, September 10, 2013
Peoples of the empire: The Phrygians
Geographical definition
The Phrygians were widespread through Anatolia, living in regions from the Hellespont to Cappadocia. Phrygia proper lay in central Anatolia and centered around the Sakarya River, just west of Cappadocia, directly east of Lydia and considerably to the north of Lycia. Their name for themselves is not known, nor is the name by which the Persians called them.
History
Herodotus believed (and some modern scholars agree) that the Phrygians were relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia descended from an offshoot of the Bryges, who lived in the Balkans. He also further states that they were in turn ancestral to the Armenians, which is uncertain. Greek mythology has the Phrygians fighting on the side of the Trojans during the Trojan War, and Gordium was the home of the legendary kings named Midas (of whom there were three).
The Phrygian kingdom in central Anatolia reached its peak in the eighth century BC. Around 675 Gordium was sacked, an act the Greeks attributed to Cimmerian invaders. The Cimmerians were driven out around 620 by the Lydians, who made Phrygia one of their provinces. Gordium was built up with Lydian financing. The accidental slayer of Croesus' son in Herodotus I.34-45 was Adrastus, a prince of Gordium.
As a Lydian province, Phrygia passed to Persia when the latter conquered Lydia some time after 547. By the time of Herodotus, it was placed with the Hellespont, Paphlagonia, Syria, the Mariandynians and the Thracians of Asia in the third imperial tax district, whose yearly tribute totaled 360 talents.
The satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia was split off around the turn of the fifth century. Its capital was Dascylium. Lendering notes that "[t]he architectural remains from this age are not very monumental" though a terrace wall in Dascylium shows similarity to walls at Pasargadae and Persepolis.
In the 480 invasion of Greece, Phrygians served together with the Armenians under Artochmes, one of Darius' sons-in-law. We are not told what role they played in the fighting, but Herodotus says that some Phrygians were picked by Mardonius to remain in Greece after Xerxes left and it seems reasonable that they participated at Plataea if nowhere else.
Our history of Greater (interior) Phrygia is poor, due to its isolation from the Greek world and dearth of surviving domestic or Persian documents. However it was still in the empire's hands by the time Alexander arrived in Gordium in 334. In 333, he appointed the satrapy to his general Antigonus, founder of the Antigonid dynasty.
As a reward for his leadership of the surviving Persian army out of Greece, Artabazus (*Artavazdâ), Xerxes' first cousin and formerly commander of the Chorasmian and Parthian cavalry contingents, was given the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia in 477. His descendants held this office until the invasion of Alexander the Great.
Artabazus' son Pharnabazus may or may not have been satrap. His grandson Pharnaces was satrap by 430, when he tried to open talks with Sparta to involve himself in the political side of the Peloponnesian War, but this initiative went nowhere. Pharnaces remained in office at least until 422 and possibly later. His son Pharnabazus II succeeded him before the winter of 413-12, when he and his rival, Tissaphernes of Lydia, tried separately to ally themselves with Sparta against Athens. Again, little was accomplished due to Athens' naval supremacy until Cyrus the Younger became involved, but this subject falls outside the scope of this article.
Pharnabazus was ruler when the survivors of the Ten Thousand passed through there in 400 on their way back to Greece, when Tissaphernes of Lydia redirected a campaign by Spartan king Thibron in 399 and by Agesilaus II in 396-95; Pharnabazus then campaigned in the Aegean with the Athenian admiral Conon during the Corinthian War. As a result of his and the empire's gains in this conflict, he was assigned to reconquer Egypt, but failed to do so though he tried repeatedly.
In the meantime, his son Ariobarzanes (*Ariyabrdna) succeeded him as satrap. He joined the Revolt of the Satraps in 366, receiving aid from Sparta when Caria and Lydia attacked him, and in recognition of his opposition to the great king, Athens made him an honorary citizen, but his son Mithradates betrayed him to the king in 363 or 362, leading to his crucifixion.
His brother Artabazus II succeeded him and likewise decided to rebel after the death of Artaxerxes II in 358, hiring Athenian mercenaries who defeated an imperial army sent against Artabazus in 355. But Artaxerxes III was able to intimidate Athens into recalling its forces by threatening to send the Persian navy to support Athens' own rebellious territories in the Social War. Artabazus was forced to flee to Macedon in 353.
Hellespontine Phrygia was given to Arsites, who led the satraps at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 and committed suicide after their defeat. Alexander appointed his general Calas as the first Macedonian satrap. Upon the partition of Babylon it was given to Alexander's bodyguard Leonnatus, while Greater Phrygia remained with Antigonus.
Although now part of the Hellenistic world, at least some Phrygians spoke their own language until the fifth century AD. In the third century BC, Hellespontine Phrygia was invaded by a Celtic people whom the Greeks called Galatai, and with the spread of their language the region became known as Galatia. Greater Phrygia also suffered from these invasions, which destroyed Gordium. In 188 it came under rule of the Greek Attalid dynasty of western Anatolia, which Attalus III left in his will to the Roman republic. As such, the name of Phrygia was retained for administrative purposes from 133 BC until the final end of Byzantium in AD 1453.
Language
The Phrygian language is scarcely attested from two bodies of inscriptions, one dating from the turn of the ninth century BC and after, the other from the turn of the first century AD. It was an Indo-European language bearing some similarities to Greek and the two may form a subfamily.
The earlier group of inscriptions were written in a particular script derived from Phoenician which may or may not have come through Greek. The latter were written in the Greek alphabet.
Religion
The Phrygians worshiped a wide variety of their own gods and Anatolian ones. Their (apparent) supreme gods were Sabazios, the sky god and horseman whom the Greeks equated variously with Zeus or Dionysus, and the native Anatolian mother goddess Cybele (Phrygian Matar Kubileya), identified strongly with the Anatolian wilderness. Like the Lycians, the Phrygians tended to carve shrines and idols directly into living rock.
Clothing
Phrygian clothing was similar to Medo-Persian, with snug-fitting (probably footed) trousers and long-sleeved tunics covered in bold patterns. The Phrygian cap was similar to a tiara but lacked earflaps and had a tall, stiff peak curling forward (Phrygians also sometimes wore tiaras with earflaps).
Weapons
Herodotus' Phrygians are armed "like the Paphlagonians," with woven helmets, small shields, short spears, javelins and daggers (VII.72). I suppose it is not impossible that the woven helmets were in fact tiaras or Phrygian caps, though it would be an unusual choice of words on Herodotus' part. The small shields were, I suspect, most likely crescents, given that these were used both in West Asia and to the north in Thracia.
The Phrygians were widespread through Anatolia, living in regions from the Hellespont to Cappadocia. Phrygia proper lay in central Anatolia and centered around the Sakarya River, just west of Cappadocia, directly east of Lydia and considerably to the north of Lycia. Their name for themselves is not known, nor is the name by which the Persians called them.
History
Herodotus believed (and some modern scholars agree) that the Phrygians were relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia descended from an offshoot of the Bryges, who lived in the Balkans. He also further states that they were in turn ancestral to the Armenians, which is uncertain. Greek mythology has the Phrygians fighting on the side of the Trojans during the Trojan War, and Gordium was the home of the legendary kings named Midas (of whom there were three).
The Phrygian kingdom in central Anatolia reached its peak in the eighth century BC. Around 675 Gordium was sacked, an act the Greeks attributed to Cimmerian invaders. The Cimmerians were driven out around 620 by the Lydians, who made Phrygia one of their provinces. Gordium was built up with Lydian financing. The accidental slayer of Croesus' son in Herodotus I.34-45 was Adrastus, a prince of Gordium.
As a Lydian province, Phrygia passed to Persia when the latter conquered Lydia some time after 547. By the time of Herodotus, it was placed with the Hellespont, Paphlagonia, Syria, the Mariandynians and the Thracians of Asia in the third imperial tax district, whose yearly tribute totaled 360 talents.
The satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia was split off around the turn of the fifth century. Its capital was Dascylium. Lendering notes that "[t]he architectural remains from this age are not very monumental" though a terrace wall in Dascylium shows similarity to walls at Pasargadae and Persepolis.
In the 480 invasion of Greece, Phrygians served together with the Armenians under Artochmes, one of Darius' sons-in-law. We are not told what role they played in the fighting, but Herodotus says that some Phrygians were picked by Mardonius to remain in Greece after Xerxes left and it seems reasonable that they participated at Plataea if nowhere else.
Our history of Greater (interior) Phrygia is poor, due to its isolation from the Greek world and dearth of surviving domestic or Persian documents. However it was still in the empire's hands by the time Alexander arrived in Gordium in 334. In 333, he appointed the satrapy to his general Antigonus, founder of the Antigonid dynasty.
As a reward for his leadership of the surviving Persian army out of Greece, Artabazus (*Artavazdâ), Xerxes' first cousin and formerly commander of the Chorasmian and Parthian cavalry contingents, was given the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia in 477. His descendants held this office until the invasion of Alexander the Great.
Artabazus' son Pharnabazus may or may not have been satrap. His grandson Pharnaces was satrap by 430, when he tried to open talks with Sparta to involve himself in the political side of the Peloponnesian War, but this initiative went nowhere. Pharnaces remained in office at least until 422 and possibly later. His son Pharnabazus II succeeded him before the winter of 413-12, when he and his rival, Tissaphernes of Lydia, tried separately to ally themselves with Sparta against Athens. Again, little was accomplished due to Athens' naval supremacy until Cyrus the Younger became involved, but this subject falls outside the scope of this article.
Pharnabazus was ruler when the survivors of the Ten Thousand passed through there in 400 on their way back to Greece, when Tissaphernes of Lydia redirected a campaign by Spartan king Thibron in 399 and by Agesilaus II in 396-95; Pharnabazus then campaigned in the Aegean with the Athenian admiral Conon during the Corinthian War. As a result of his and the empire's gains in this conflict, he was assigned to reconquer Egypt, but failed to do so though he tried repeatedly.
In the meantime, his son Ariobarzanes (*Ariyabrdna) succeeded him as satrap. He joined the Revolt of the Satraps in 366, receiving aid from Sparta when Caria and Lydia attacked him, and in recognition of his opposition to the great king, Athens made him an honorary citizen, but his son Mithradates betrayed him to the king in 363 or 362, leading to his crucifixion.
His brother Artabazus II succeeded him and likewise decided to rebel after the death of Artaxerxes II in 358, hiring Athenian mercenaries who defeated an imperial army sent against Artabazus in 355. But Artaxerxes III was able to intimidate Athens into recalling its forces by threatening to send the Persian navy to support Athens' own rebellious territories in the Social War. Artabazus was forced to flee to Macedon in 353.
Hellespontine Phrygia was given to Arsites, who led the satraps at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 and committed suicide after their defeat. Alexander appointed his general Calas as the first Macedonian satrap. Upon the partition of Babylon it was given to Alexander's bodyguard Leonnatus, while Greater Phrygia remained with Antigonus.
Although now part of the Hellenistic world, at least some Phrygians spoke their own language until the fifth century AD. In the third century BC, Hellespontine Phrygia was invaded by a Celtic people whom the Greeks called Galatai, and with the spread of their language the region became known as Galatia. Greater Phrygia also suffered from these invasions, which destroyed Gordium. In 188 it came under rule of the Greek Attalid dynasty of western Anatolia, which Attalus III left in his will to the Roman republic. As such, the name of Phrygia was retained for administrative purposes from 133 BC until the final end of Byzantium in AD 1453.
Language
The Phrygian language is scarcely attested from two bodies of inscriptions, one dating from the turn of the ninth century BC and after, the other from the turn of the first century AD. It was an Indo-European language bearing some similarities to Greek and the two may form a subfamily.
The earlier group of inscriptions were written in a particular script derived from Phoenician which may or may not have come through Greek. The latter were written in the Greek alphabet.
Religion
The Phrygians worshiped a wide variety of their own gods and Anatolian ones. Their (apparent) supreme gods were Sabazios, the sky god and horseman whom the Greeks equated variously with Zeus or Dionysus, and the native Anatolian mother goddess Cybele (Phrygian Matar Kubileya), identified strongly with the Anatolian wilderness. Like the Lycians, the Phrygians tended to carve shrines and idols directly into living rock.
Clothing
Phrygian clothing was similar to Medo-Persian, with snug-fitting (probably footed) trousers and long-sleeved tunics covered in bold patterns. The Phrygian cap was similar to a tiara but lacked earflaps and had a tall, stiff peak curling forward (Phrygians also sometimes wore tiaras with earflaps).
Weapons
Herodotus' Phrygians are armed "like the Paphlagonians," with woven helmets, small shields, short spears, javelins and daggers (VII.72). I suppose it is not impossible that the woven helmets were in fact tiaras or Phrygian caps, though it would be an unusual choice of words on Herodotus' part. The small shields were, I suspect, most likely crescents, given that these were used both in West Asia and to the north in Thracia.
Tuesday, August 27, 2013
Peoples of the empire: The Parthians
After the Lydians come a long string of peoples whose histories and cultures in Achaemenid times are too poorly-documented to put together a good article. Skipping through more than a dozen such names finally brings us to the Parthians.
Geographical definition
Parthia (O.P. Parthava) lay on the southwest corner of the Caspian, west of Hyrcania, south of the Kopet Dag mountains that separate modern Iran and Turmenistan, and north of the deserts of central Iran.
History
Parthia may have been subject to the Medes and acknowledged Persian suzerainty after Cyrus conquered Media. The country first appears in the Behistun inscription, where its satrap is Darius the Great's father, Hystaspes. After Darius seized the throne, the Parthians joined Phraortes' revolt and besieged Hystaspes in the Parthian city of Vishpauzâtish, but he defeated them on March 8, 521 and again at Patigrabana on July 11.
With the Arians, Chorasmians and Sogdians, the Parthians made up the 16th tax district, paying 300 talents yearly. At times Parthia formed a joint satrapy with Hyrcania. At the Apadana, they are illustrated bringing bowls and a Bactrian camel. Parthians took part in the 480 invasion of Greece as infantry, marching with the Chorasmians under Artabazus son of Pharnaces. They are not mentioned at the major battles.
Parthia drops off the radar for a century and a half following Xerxes' invasion. We next hear of them at Gaugamela in 331, where together with the Hyrcanians, they fought as cavalry under the joint satrap Phrataphernes in the Persian left wing (commanded overall by Mazaeus). Phrataphernes remained with Darius on his final flight toward Parthia, but after the Persian king was murdered, Phrataphernes submitted peacefully to Alexander and thus retained his office.
Diodorus has Phratapernes still holding this office at the Partition of Babylon, but at Triparadiscus it was reassigned to Philip, formerly of Sogdiana. Philip was deposed and killed in 318 by Peithon, who made his brother Eudamus governor, but the following year the other eastern satraps expelled them and in 316 Seleucus gave Parthia to a satrap of his choosing, Stasander.
The Seleucids maintained nominal control over Parthia until 247, when a political crisis in Antioch motivated the satrap Andragoras to declare Parthia an independent state. Just nine years later, however, a tribe of Eastern Iranian nomads known as the Parni invaded from the north and conquered Parthia. This was the beginning of the Arsacid dynasty, which in the second century BC came to rule most of Greater Iran.
The Arsacids were deposed early in the third century AD by a resurgent Persia under the Sassanids. The Sassanids dissolved Parthia as an administrative unit and made it part of a larger province, Khorasan. While the Parthian language continued to be used (judging from bilingual inscriptions) early in the Sassanid period, the region seems to have become Persianized at least by the time of Ferdowsi in the 10th century. Today the area is divided among several Iranian provinces and is home mostly to native Persian-speakers with Kurds and Turkmens in the north.
By the Arsacid period, the name Parthava had been worn down into Pahlav or Pahlaw, which (as the adjective Pahlavi) survived as a designation of things originating in northeastern Iran.
Language
Parthian was a Western Iranian language and thus more closely related to Persian than Avestan or other Eastern languages, but belonged to the Northwestern sub-branch, whereas Persian belongs to the Southwestern. Parthian is attested in Pahlavi (a script derived from Aramaic) from the Arsacid and early Sassanid dynasties, and was probably different in the Achaemenid period, perhaps resembling Old Persian a little more.
Religion
I can find nothing on Parthian religion under the Achaemenids, but a reasonable guess would be something similar to the Persians, in a transitional state between ancient Iranian polytheism and early Mazdaism.
Clothing
Parthians in royal art wear pullover tunics, loose-fitting trousers and mid-calf pull-on boots. The Apadana delegation wear what look like tiaras that are very full and made of soft woven fabric, though they could instead be a complex kind of turban wrap. The one at Naqs-e Rostam wears a more standard cut of tiara.
Weapons
Herodotus has the Parthians armed like Bactrians, who carry "reed bows" and spears. I think you would be safe using trilobate bronze arrowheads, which were common in both western Iran and Scythia. In Arsacid times the Parthians were known for their cavalry, but they probably took heavy influence from the Arsacids' nomadic ancestors. The Parthian at Naqs-e Rostam wears a Medo-Persian akinakes. It is probable that the Parthian akinakes was more like the Scythian in style.
Geographical definition
Parthia (O.P. Parthava) lay on the southwest corner of the Caspian, west of Hyrcania, south of the Kopet Dag mountains that separate modern Iran and Turmenistan, and north of the deserts of central Iran.
History
Parthia may have been subject to the Medes and acknowledged Persian suzerainty after Cyrus conquered Media. The country first appears in the Behistun inscription, where its satrap is Darius the Great's father, Hystaspes. After Darius seized the throne, the Parthians joined Phraortes' revolt and besieged Hystaspes in the Parthian city of Vishpauzâtish, but he defeated them on March 8, 521 and again at Patigrabana on July 11.
With the Arians, Chorasmians and Sogdians, the Parthians made up the 16th tax district, paying 300 talents yearly. At times Parthia formed a joint satrapy with Hyrcania. At the Apadana, they are illustrated bringing bowls and a Bactrian camel. Parthians took part in the 480 invasion of Greece as infantry, marching with the Chorasmians under Artabazus son of Pharnaces. They are not mentioned at the major battles.
Parthia drops off the radar for a century and a half following Xerxes' invasion. We next hear of them at Gaugamela in 331, where together with the Hyrcanians, they fought as cavalry under the joint satrap Phrataphernes in the Persian left wing (commanded overall by Mazaeus). Phrataphernes remained with Darius on his final flight toward Parthia, but after the Persian king was murdered, Phrataphernes submitted peacefully to Alexander and thus retained his office.
Diodorus has Phratapernes still holding this office at the Partition of Babylon, but at Triparadiscus it was reassigned to Philip, formerly of Sogdiana. Philip was deposed and killed in 318 by Peithon, who made his brother Eudamus governor, but the following year the other eastern satraps expelled them and in 316 Seleucus gave Parthia to a satrap of his choosing, Stasander.
The Seleucids maintained nominal control over Parthia until 247, when a political crisis in Antioch motivated the satrap Andragoras to declare Parthia an independent state. Just nine years later, however, a tribe of Eastern Iranian nomads known as the Parni invaded from the north and conquered Parthia. This was the beginning of the Arsacid dynasty, which in the second century BC came to rule most of Greater Iran.
The Arsacids were deposed early in the third century AD by a resurgent Persia under the Sassanids. The Sassanids dissolved Parthia as an administrative unit and made it part of a larger province, Khorasan. While the Parthian language continued to be used (judging from bilingual inscriptions) early in the Sassanid period, the region seems to have become Persianized at least by the time of Ferdowsi in the 10th century. Today the area is divided among several Iranian provinces and is home mostly to native Persian-speakers with Kurds and Turkmens in the north.
By the Arsacid period, the name Parthava had been worn down into Pahlav or Pahlaw, which (as the adjective Pahlavi) survived as a designation of things originating in northeastern Iran.
Language
Parthian was a Western Iranian language and thus more closely related to Persian than Avestan or other Eastern languages, but belonged to the Northwestern sub-branch, whereas Persian belongs to the Southwestern. Parthian is attested in Pahlavi (a script derived from Aramaic) from the Arsacid and early Sassanid dynasties, and was probably different in the Achaemenid period, perhaps resembling Old Persian a little more.
Religion
I can find nothing on Parthian religion under the Achaemenids, but a reasonable guess would be something similar to the Persians, in a transitional state between ancient Iranian polytheism and early Mazdaism.
Clothing
Parthians in royal art wear pullover tunics, loose-fitting trousers and mid-calf pull-on boots. The Apadana delegation wear what look like tiaras that are very full and made of soft woven fabric, though they could instead be a complex kind of turban wrap. The one at Naqs-e Rostam wears a more standard cut of tiara.
Weapons
Herodotus has the Parthians armed like Bactrians, who carry "reed bows" and spears. I think you would be safe using trilobate bronze arrowheads, which were common in both western Iran and Scythia. In Arsacid times the Parthians were known for their cavalry, but they probably took heavy influence from the Arsacids' nomadic ancestors. The Parthian at Naqs-e Rostam wears a Medo-Persian akinakes. It is probable that the Parthian akinakes was more like the Scythian in style.
Wednesday, May 16, 2012
What I'm reading right now
Prods Oktor Skjærvø's An Introduction to Old Persian (PDF, 2.3MB). Lots of surprises await.
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